---
title: "Clarke"
description: "Verse Leviticus 2:1. Meat-offering — מנחה minchah. For an explanation of this word Genesis 4:3, and Lev. vii. Calmet has remarked that there are five kind"
image: "/images/missing.jpg"
url: "https://realbiblebelievers.com/commentaries/clarkes-commentary/leviticus/2"
---

Verse [Leviticus 2:1](../../../kjv/leviticus/2/1). ***Meat-offering*** — מנחה *minchah*. For an explanation of this word [Genesis 4:3](../../../kjv/genesis/4/3), and Lev. vii. Calmet has remarked that there are *five* kinds of the *minchah* mentioned in this chapter.
1. סלת soleth, simple *flour* or *meal*, [Leviticus 2:1](../../../kjv/leviticus/2/1).
2. *Cakes* and *wafers*, or whatever was baked in the *oven*, [Leviticus 2:4](../../../kjv/leviticus/2/4).
3. *Cakes* baked in the *pan*, [Leviticus 2:5](../../../kjv/leviticus/2/5).
4. *Cakes* baked on the *frying-pan*, or probably, a *gridiron*, [Leviticus 2:7](../../../kjv/leviticus/2/7).
5. *Green ears* of corn parched, [Leviticus 2:14](../../../kjv/leviticus/2/14).
All these were offered without *honey* or *leaven*, but accompanied with *wine, oil*, and *frankincense*. It is very likely that the *minchah*, in some or all of the above forms, was the earliest oblation offered to the Supreme Being, and probably was in use *before* sin entered into the world, and consequently before *bloody sacrifices*, or *piacular victims*, had been ordained. The *minchah* of *green ears* of corn dried by the fire, c., was properly the *gratitude-offering* for a good *seed time*, and the prospect of a plentiful *harvest*. This appears to have been the offering brought by Cain, [Genesis 4:3](../../../kjv/genesis/4/3)
[Genesis 4:3](../../../kjv/genesis/4/3). The *flour*, whether of wheat, rice, barley, rye, or any other grain used for aliment, was in all likelihood equally proper; for in [Numbers 5:15](../../../kjv/numbers/5/15), we find the *flour of barley*, or *barley meal*, is called *minchah*. It is plain that in the institution of the *minchah* no *animal* was here included, though in other places it seems to include both kinds; but in general the *minchah* was not a *bloody offering*, nor used by way of *atonement* or *expiation*, but merely in a eucharistic way, expressing gratitude to God for the produce of the soil. It is such an offering as what is called *natural* *religion* might be reasonably expected to suggest: but alas! so far lost is man, that even *thankfulness* to God for the fruits of the earth must be taught by a Divine revelation; for in the heart of man even the *seeds of gratitude* are not found, till sown there by the hand of Divine *grace*.
Offerings of different kinds of *grain, flour, bread, fruits*, c., are the most ancient among the heathen nations and even the people of God have had them from the beginning of the world. See this subject largely discussed on [Exodus 23:29](../../../kjv/exodus/23/29), where several examples are given. *Ovid* intimates that these gratitude-offerings originated with agriculture. "In the most ancient times men lived by rapine, hunting, c., for the *sword* was considered to be more honourable than the *plough* but when they sowed their fields, they dedicated the first-fruits of their harvest to *Ceres*, to whom the ancients attributed the art of agriculture, and to whom burnt-offerings of corn were made, according to immemorial usages." The passage to which I refer, and of which I have given the substance, is the following: -
God, says *Calmet*, requires nothing here which was not in common use for nourishment; but he commands that these things should be offered with such articles as might give them the most exquisite relish, such as *salt, oil*, and *wine*, and that the flour should be of the finest and purest kind. The ancients, according to Suidas, seem to have made much use or meal formed into a paste with milk, and sometimes with water. (See Suidas in Μαζα.) The priests kept in the temples a certain mixture of flour mingled with oil and wine, which they called υγιεια *Hugieia* or *health*, and which they used as a kind of *amulet* or charm against sickness; after they had finished their sacrifices, they generally threw some *flour* upon the fire, mingled with *oil* and *wine*, which they called θυληματα *thulemata*, and which, according to Theophrastus, was the ordinary sacrifice of the poor.

Verse [Leviticus 2:2](../../../kjv/leviticus/2/2). ***His handful of the flour*** — This was for a *memorial*, to put God in mind of his covenant with their fathers, and to recall to *their* mind his gracious conduct towards them and their ancestors. Mr. *Ainsworth* properly remarks, "that there was neither *oil* nor *incense* offered with the *sin* and jealousy offerings; because they were no offerings of *memorial*, but such as brought *iniquities* to remembrance, which were neither gracious nor sweet-smelling before the Lord." [Numbers 5:15](../../../kjv/numbers/5/15); [Leviticus 5:11](../../../kjv/leviticus/5/11).
In this case a handful only was burnt, the rest was reserved for the priest's use; but *all* the *frankincense* was burnt, because from it the priest could derive no advantage.

Verse [Leviticus 2:4](../../../kjv/leviticus/2/4). ***Baken in the oven*** — תנור *tannur*, from נר *nar*, to *split, divide*, says Mr. Parkhurst; and hence the *oven*, because of its burning, dissolving, and melting heat.

Verse [Leviticus 2:5](../../../kjv/leviticus/2/5). ***Baken in a pan*** — מחבת *machabath*, supposed to be a *flat iron plate*, placed over the fire; such as is called a *griddle* in some countries.

Verse [Leviticus 2:7](../../../kjv/leviticus/2/7). ***The frying-pan*** — מרחשת *marchesheth*, supposed to be the same with that called by the Arabs a *ta-jen*, a shallow earthen vessel like a *frying-pan*, used not only to fry in, but for other purposes. On the different instruments, as well as the manner of *baking* in the east, Mr. Harmer, in his observations on select passages of Scripture, has collected the following curious information.
"Dr. Shaw informs us that in the cities and villages of Barbary, there are *public ovens*, but that among the *Bedouins*, who live in tents, and the *Kabyles*, who live in miserable hovels in the mountains, their bread, made into thin cakes, is baked either immediately upon the coals, or else in a *ta-jen*, which he tells us is a *shallow earthen vessel like a frying-pan*: and then cites the *Septuagint* to show that the supposed pan, mentioned [Leviticus 2:5](../../../kjv/leviticus/2/5), was the same thing as a *ta-jen*. The *ta-jen*, according to Dr. Russel, is exactly the same among the Bedouins as the ρηγανον, a word of the same sound as well as meaning, was among the Greeks. So the Septuagint, [Leviticus 2:5](../../../kjv/leviticus/2/5): *if thy oblation be a meat-offering*, baken *in a pan*, (απο τηγανου), *it shall be of fine flour unleavened, mingled with oil*.
"This account given by the doctor is curious; but as it does not give us all the eastern ways of baking, so neither does it furnish us, I am afraid, with a complete comment on that variety of methods of preparing the meat-offerings which is mentioned by Moses in [Leviticus 2:1-16](../../../kjv/leviticus/2/1-16). So long ago as Queen Elizabeth's time, *Rauwolff* observed that travellers frequently baked bread in the deserts of Arabia on the ground, heated for that purpose by fire, covering their cakes of bread with *ashes* and *coals*, and turning them several times until they were baked enough; but that some of the Arabians had in their tents, *stones*, or *copper plates*, made on purpose for baking. Dr. *Pococke* very lately made a like observation, speaking of *iron hearths* used for baking their bread.
"Sir *John Chardin*, mentioning the several ways of baking their bread in the east, describes these *iron plates* as small and *convex*. These plates are most commonly used, he tells us, in Persia, and among the wandering people that dwell in tents, as being the easiest way of baking, and done with the least expense; the bread being as thin as a *skin*, and soon prepared. *Another* way (for he mentions four) is by baking on the *hearth*. That bread is about an inch thick; they make no other all along the Black Sea from the Palus Maeotis to the Caspian Sea, in Chaldea, and in Mesopotamia, except in towns. This, he supposes, is owing to their being *woody* countries. These people make a fire in the middle of a room; when the bread is ready for baking they sweep a corner of the hearth, lay the bread there, and cover it with *hot* *ashes and embers*; in a quarter of an hour they turn it: this bread is very good. The *third* way is that which is common among us. The *last* way, and that which is common through all Asia, is thus: they make an oven in the ground, four or five feet deep and three in diameter, well plastered with mortar. When it is hot, they place the bread (which is commonly long, and not thicker than a finger) against the sides, and it is baked in a moment.
"*D'Arvieux* mentions another way used by the Arabs about Mount Carmel, who sometimes bake in an oven, and at other time on the hearth; but have a third method, which is, to make a fire in a great *stone pitcher* and when it is heated, they mix meal and water, as we do to make *paste* to glue things together, which they apply with the hollow of their hands to the outside of the pitcher, and this extremely soft paste spreading itself upon it is baked in an instant. The heat of the pitcher having dried up all the moisture, the bread comes off as thin as our *wafers*; and the operation is so speedily performed that in a very little time a sufficient quantity is made.
"*Maimonides* and the *Septuagint* differ in their explanation of [Leviticus 2:5](../../../kjv/leviticus/2/5); for that Egyptian rabbi supposes this verse speaks of a fiat plate, and these more ancient interpreters, of a *ta-jen*. But they both seem to agree that these were two of the methods of preparing the meat-offering; for Maimonides supposes the *seventh* verse speaks of a *frying-pan* or *ta-jen*; whereas the *Septuagint*, on the contrary, thought the word *there* meant a *hearth*, which term takes in an iron or copper plate, though it extends farther.
"The *meat-offerings* of the *fourth* verse answer as well to the Arab bread, baked by means of their *stone pitchers*, which are used by them for the baking of *wafers*, as to their cakes of bread mentioned by *D'Arvieux*, who, describing the way of baking among the modern Arabs, after mentioning some of their methods, says they bake their best sort of bread, either by heating an oven, or a large pitcher, half full of certain little smooth shining flints, upon which they lay the dough, spread out in form of a thin broad cake. The mention of *wafers* seems to fix the meaning of Moses to these *oven pitchers*, though perhaps it may be thought an objection that this meat-offering is said to have been baked in an oven; but it will be sufficient to observe that the Hebrew words only signify a meat-offering of the oven, and consequently may be understood as well of wafers baked on the *outside* of these oven pitchers, as of cakes of bread baked in them. *And if thou* *bring an oblation, a baked thing, of the oven, it shall be an* *unleavened cake of fine flour mingled with oil, or unleavened* *wafers anointed with oil*. Whoever then attends to these accounts of the stone pitcher, the ta-jen, and the copper plate or iron hearth, will enter into this second of Leviticus, I believe, much more perfectly than any commentator has done, and will find in these accounts what answers perfectly well to the description Moses gives us of the different ways of preparing the meat-offerings. A *ta-jen* indeed, according to Dr. Shaw, serves for a *frying-pan* as well as for a baking vessel; for he says, the *bagreah* of the people of Barbary differs not much from our pancakes, only that, instead of rubbing the ta-jen or pan in which they fry them with butter, they rub it with soap, to make them like a honeycomb.
"Moses possibly intended a meat-offering of that kind might be presented to the Lord; and our translators seem to prefer that supposition, since, though the margin mentions the opinion of Maimonides, the reading of the text in the sixth verse opposes a pan for baking to a pan for frying in the seventeenth verse. The thought, however, of Maimonides seems to be most just, as Moses appears to be speaking of different kinds of bread only, not of other farinaceous preparations.
"These oven pitchers mentioned by *D'Arvieux*, and used by the modern Arabs for baking cakes of bread in them, and wafers on their outsides, are not the only portable ovens of the east. St. Jerome, in his commentary on [Lamentations 5:10](../../../kjv/lamentations/5/10), describes an eastern oven as a round vessel of brass, blackened on the outside by the surrounding fire which heats it within. Such an oven I have seen used in England. Which of these the Mishnah refers to when it speaks of the women lending their ovens to one another, as well as their mills and their sieves, I do not know; but the foregoing observations may serve to remove a surprise that this circumstance may otherwise occasion in the reader of the Mishnah. Almost every body knows that little portable handmills are extremely common in the Levant; movable ovens are not so well known. Whether ovens of the kind which St. Jerome mentions be as ancient as the days of Moses, does not appear, unless the ta-jen be used after this manner; but the pitcher ovens of the Arabs are, without doubt, of that remote antiquity.
"Travellers agree that the eastern bread is made in small thin moist cakes, must be eaten new, and is good for nothing when kept longer than a day. This, however, admits of exceptions. Dr. Russel of late, and Rauwolff formerly, assure us that they have several sorts of bread and cakes: some, Rauwolff tells us, done with yolk of eggs; some mixed with several sorts of seed, as of *sesamum*, Romish *coriander*, and wild *garden saffron*, which are also stewed upon it; and he elsewhere supposes that they prepare biscuits for travelling. Russel, who mentions this stewing of seeds on their cakes says, they have a variety of *rusks* and *biscuits*. To these authors let me add Pitts, who tells us the biscuits they carry with them from Egypt will last them to Mecca and back again.
"The Scriptures suppose their loaves of bread were very small, *three* of them being requisite for the entertainment of a single person, [Luke 11:5](../../../kjv/luke/11/5). That they were generally eaten new, and baked as they wanted them, as appears from the case of Abraham. That sometimes, however, they were made so as to keep several days; so the *shew-bread* was fit food, after lying before the Lord a week. And that bread for travellers was wont to be made to keep some time, as appears from the pretences of the Gibeonites, [Joshua 9:12](../../../kjv/joshua/9/12), and the preparations made for Jacob's journey into Egypt, [Genesis 45:23](../../../kjv/genesis/45/23). The bread or *rusks* for travelling is often made in the form of large rings, and is moistened or soaked in water before it is used. In like manner, too, they seem to have had there a variety of eatables of this kind as the Aleppines now have. In particular, some made like those on which seeds are strewed, as we may collect from that part of the presents of Jeroboam's wife to the Prophet Ahijah, which our translators have rendered *cracknels*, [1 Kings 14:3](../../../kjv/1-kings/14/3). Buxtorf indeed supposes the original word נקדים *nikkuddim* signifies biscuits, called by this name, either because they were formed into little buttons like some of our gingerbread, or because they were pricked full of holes after a particular manner. The last of these two conjectures, I imagine, was embraced by our translators of this passage; for *cracknels*, if they are all over England of the same form, are full of holes, being formed into a kind of flourish of lattice-work. I have seen some of the unleavened bread of the English Jews made in like manner in a net form. Nevertheless I should think it more natural to understand the word of biscuit spotted with seeds; for it is used elsewhere to signify works of gold spotted with studs of silver; and, as it should seem, bread spotted with mould, [Joshua 9:5-12](../../../kjv/joshua/9/5-12); how much more natural is it then to understand the word of cakes *spotted with* *seeds*, which are so common in the east! Is not לבבות *lebiboth*, in particular, the word that in general means rich *cakes*? a sort of which Tamar used to prepare that was not common, and furnished Amnon with a pretence for desiring her being sent to his house, that she might make some of that kind for him in the time of his indisposition, his fancy running upon them; see [2 Samuel 13:2-8](../../../kjv/2-samuel/13/2-8). Parkhurst supposes the original word to signify *pancakes*, and translates the root לבב *labab to move* or *toss up and down*: 'And she took the dough, (ותלוש *vattalosh*), and *kneaded* (ותלבב vattelabbeb, and *tossed*) it in his sight, ותבשל *vattebashshel,* and *dressed* the cakes.' In this passage, says Mr. Parkhurst, it is to be observed that לבב is distinguished from לש to *knead*, and from בשל to *dress*, which agrees with the interpretation here given.
"The account which Mr. Jackson gives of an Arab baking apparatus, and the manner of *kneading* and *tossing their cakes*, will at once, if I mistake not, fix the meaning of this passage, and cast much light on [Leviticus 11:35](../../../kjv/leviticus/11/35). "I was much amused by observing the dexterity of the Arab women in baking their bread. They have a small place built with clay, between two and three feet high, having a hole in the bottom for the convenience of drawing out the ashes, somewhat similar to that of a lime-kiln. The oven, which I think is the most proper name for this place, is usually about fifteen inches wide at top, and gradually grows wider to the bottom. It is heated with wood, and when sufficiently hot, and perfectly clear from smoke, having nothing but clear embers at the bottom, which continue to reflect great heat, they prepare the dough in a large bowl, and mould the cakes to the desired size on a board or stone placed near the oven. After they have kneaded the cake to a proper consistence, they pat it a little, *then toss it about* with great dexterity in one hand till it is as thin as they choose to make it. They then wet one side of it with water, at the same time wetting the hand and arm with which they put it into the oven. The side of the cake adheres fast to the side of the oven till it is sufficiently baked, when, if not paid proper attention to, it would fall down among the embers. If they were not exceedingly quick at this work, the heat of the oven would burn their arms; but they perform it with such amazing dexterity that one woman will continue keeping three or four cakes in the oven at once, till she has done baking. This mode, let me add, does not require half the fuel that is made use of in Europe." See more in HARMER'S *Observat*., vol. i., p. 414, &c., Edit. 1808.

Verse [Leviticus 2:8](../../../kjv/leviticus/2/8). ***Thou shalt bring the meat-offering*** — It is likely that the person himself who offered the sacrifice brought it to the priest, and then the priest presented it before the Lord.

Verse [Leviticus 2:11](../../../kjv/leviticus/2/11). ***No meat-offering - shall be made with leaven*** — See the reason of this prohibition in the note on [Exodus 12:8](../../../kjv/exodus/12/8). [Exodus 12:8](../../../kjv/exodus/12/8).
***Nor any honey*** — Because it was apt to produce *acidity*, as some think, when wrought up with flour paste; or rather because it was apt to *gripe* and prove *purgative*. On this latter account the College of Physicians have totally left it out of all medicinal preparations. This effect which it has in most constitutions was a sufficient reason why it should be prohibited here, as a principal part of all these offerings was used by the priests as a part of their ordinary diet; and these offerings, being those of the poorer sort, were in greater abundance than most others. On this account, the griping, and purgative quality of the honey must render it extremely improper. As *leaven* was forbidden because producing *fermentation*, it was considered a species of *corruption*, and was therefore used to signify *hypocrisy, malice*, c., which corrupt the soul it is possible that *honey* might have had a moral reference, also, and have signified, as St. Jerome thought, *carnal pleasures* and *sensual gratifications*. Some suppose that the honey mentioned here was a sort of saccharine matter extracted from *dates*. Leaven and honey might be offered with the *first-fruits*, as we learn from the next verse; but they were forbidden to be burnt on the altar,

Verse [Leviticus 2:13](../../../kjv/leviticus/2/13). ***With all thine offerings thou shalt offer salt.*** — SALT was the opposite to *leaven*, for it preserved from *putrefaction* and *corruption*, and signified the *purity* and *persevering fidelity* that were necessary in the worship of God. Every thing was seasoned with it, to signify the purity and perfection that should be extended through every part of the Divine service, and through the hearts and lives of God's worshippers. It was called the *salt of the covenant of God*, because as salt is incorruptible, so was the covenant made with Abram, Isaac, Jacob, and the patriarchs, relative to the redemption of the world by the incarnation and death of Jesus Christ. Among the heathens *salt* was a common ingredient in all their sacrificial offerings; and as it was considered essential to the comfort and preservation of life, and an emblem of the most perfect corporeal and mental endowments, so it was supposed to be one of the most acceptable presents they could make unto their gods, from whose sacrifices it was never absent. That inimitable and invaluable writer, Pliny, has left a long chapter on this subject, the *seventh* of the *thirty-first* book of his *Natural History*, a few extracts from which will not displease the intelligent reader. Ergo, hercule, vita humanior sine Sale nequit degere: adeoque necessarium elementum est, ut transierit intellectus ad voluptates animi quoque. Nam ita SALES appellantur omnisque vitae lepos et summa hilaritas, laborumque requies non alio magis vocabulo constat. Honoribus etiam militiaeque inter ponitur, SALARIIS inde dictis--Maxime tamen in sacris intelligitur auctoritas, quando nulla conficiuntur sine *mola salsa*. "So essentially necessary is salt that without it human life cannot be preserved: and even the pleasures and endowments of the mind are expressed by it; the delights of life, repose, and the highest mental serenity, are expressed by no other term than *sales* among the Latins. It has also been applied to designate the honourable rewards given to soldiers, which are called *salarii* or *salaries*. But its importance may be farther understood by its use in *sacred things*, as no sacrifice was offered to the gods without the *salt cake*." So Virgil, Eclog. viii., ver. 82: *Sparge molam*.

"Crumble the sacred *mole* of *salt* and *corn*."

And again, AEneid., lib. iv., ver. 517: -

*Ipsa mola, manibitsque piis, altaria juxta*.

"Now with the sacred *cake*, and lifted hands,,
All bent on death, before her altar stands."
PITT.

In like manner Homer: -

Πασσε δ' ἁλος θειοιο, κρατευταων επαειπας.
Iliad, lib. ix., ver. 214.

"And taking sacred *salt* from the hearth side,
Where it was treasured, pour'd it o'er the feast."
COWPER.

Quotations of this kind might be easily multiplied, but the above may be deemed sufficient.

Verse [Leviticus 2:14](../../../kjv/leviticus/2/14). ***Green ears of corn dried by the fire*** — Green or half-ripe ears of wheat parched with fire is a species of food in use among the poor people of Palestine and Egypt to the present day. As God is represented as *keeping a table* among his people, (for the tabernacle was his *house*, where he had the golden table, shewbread, c.,) so he represents himself as *partaking* with them of all the aliments that were in use, and even sitting down with the *poor* to a repast on *parched corn*! We have already seen that these green ears were presented as a sort of eucharistical offering for the blessings of seed time, and the prospect of a plentiful harvest.
[Leviticus 2:14](../../../kjv/leviticus/2/14) several other examples might be added here, but they are not necessary.
The command to offer salt with every oblation, and which was punctually observed by the Jews, will afford the pious reader some profitable reflections. It is well known that salt has two grand properties.
1. It seasons and renders palatable the principal ailments used for the support of life.
2. It prevents putrefaction and decay.
The covenant of God, that is, his agreement with his people, is called a *covenant of salt*, to denote as we have seen above, its stable undecaying nature, as well as to point out its importance and utility in the preservation of the life of the soul. The *grace* of God by Christ Jesus is represented under the emblem of *salt*, (see [Mark 9:49](../../../kjv/mark/9/49); [Ephesians 4:29](../../../kjv/ephesians/4/29); [Colossians 4:6](../../../kjv/colossians/4/6)), because of its relishing, nourishing, and preserving quality. Without it no offering, no sacrifice, no religious service, no work even of charity and mercy, can be acceptable in the sight of God. In all things we must come unto the Father THROUGH HIM. And from none of our sacrifices or services must this salt of the covenant of our God be lacking.

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